Para-phenylenes as buffer and color tuning layers for solar cells

A method of forming an organic photovoltaic device, the method comprising:

• providing a substrate;
• forming a first electrode coupled to the substrate;
• forming a buffer layer coupled to the first electrode, wherein the buffer layer comprises a p-phenylene layer having a p-phenylene material;
• forming a second electrode above the first electrode;
• and
• forming one or more photoactive layers between the buffer layer and the second electrode, the one or more photoactive layers having at least one electron donor material and at least one electron acceptor material, wherein the p-phenylene material has a formula of:
• wherein each X is independently C—R or N, wherein n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and wherein each R is independently H, F, Cl, Br, CH3, OCH3, Si(CH3)3, NH2, OH, SH, CN, or CF3.