Generation of nano-bubbles in a liquid carrier

An apparatus for producing a composition comprising nano-bubbles dispersed in a liquid carrier, the apparatus comprising:

• an inlet for receiving a liquid carrier from a liquid source;
• an outlet;
• and
• a housing comprising:
• (a) first and second ends fluidly coupled to the inlet and the outlet, respectively;
• (b) at least two channels for receiving the liquid carrier from the inlet, wherein the ratio of an average perimeter of the channels over an average flow path length of the channels is at least about 0.015, and (c) a triboelectric material having an absolute charge density value of at least 15 microcoulomb per square meter (μC/m2);
• wherein, when the liquid carrier flows through the apparatus at a flow rate of at least 3.79×10−5 m3/min, the apparatus is configured to produce vibrational energy that causes:
• (i) the liquid carrier to contact the triboelectric material such that an electric charge is generated in the triboelectric material;
• and (ii) the liquid carrier to separate from the triboelectric material such that the electric charge is discharged to the liquid carrier to form nano-bubbles dispersed in the liquid carrier.