Synthetic formulations and methods of manufacturing and using thereof

A method of manufacturing a composite material using a reaction product produced from a solid state reaction between a first raw material, having a first concentration of M and a second raw material, having a second concentration of Me, said method of manufacturing a composite material comprising:

• introducing a liquid solvent into pores of a solid body that includes the reaction product, wherein the reaction product includes at least one synthetic formulation having the general formula MaMebOc, MaMeb(OH)d, MaMebOc(OH)d or MaMebOc(OH)d•(H2O)e, wherein M comprises at least one metal that can react to form a carbonate and Me is at least one element that can form an oxide during the carbonation reaction, wherein the ratio of a:b is between 0.167:1 and 2.5:1, wherein c is 3 or greater, wherein d is 1 or greater, wherein e is 0 or greater, wherein the at least one synthetic formulation undergoes the carbonation reaction, and wherein the at least one synthetic formulation undergoes a volume change during the carbonation reaction;
• and
• introducing a gaseous reactant into the pores of the solid body, whereby particles of the at least one synthetic formulation are transformed into bonding elements that comprise:
• a core having a first chemical composition that includes one or more chemical elements;
• a first layer at least partially covering a peripheral portion of the core, the first layer having a second chemical composition different than the first chemical composition, the second chemical composition including cations corresponding to one of the chemical elements of the first chemical composition;
• and
• a second layer at least partially covering a peripheral portion of the first layer, the second layer having a third chemical composition different than the first and second chemical compositions, the third chemical composition including cations corresponding to one of the chemical elements of the first chemical composition.