A detection-while-drilling device for composite rock stratum structures, comprising a data analysis terminal, a data acquisition device and an equipment base, wherein a vertically-arranged supporting rod is fixedly connected to a middle part of a top end of the equipment base, a drilling hydraulic oil cylinder is fixedly connected to one side of the bottom of the supporting rod, a self-adaptive data acquisition-while-drilling module is fixedly connected to a piston end of the drilling hydraulic oil cylinder, the self-adaptive data acquisition-while-drilling module is slidably connected to the supporting rod, a sample table is arranged correspondingly above the self-adaptive data acquisition-while-drilling module, the sample table is fixedly connected to the supporting rod, a top limiting system is fixedly connected to a top end of the supporting rod, a rock gripper is arranged between the sample table and the top limiting system, the self-adaptive data acquisition-while-drilling module is electrically connected to the data acquisition device, and the data acquisition device is electrically connected to the data analysis terminal.