Three-dimensional freeze extrusion for the manufacture of homogeneous and graded rods and tubes

A method of making a material, the method comprising:

• applying a temperature gradient to a mixture comprising a plurality of layers, each layer independently composed of one or more different components creating a compositional gradient in an at least one nozzle or syringe, independently extruding a same mixture or a compositionally different mixture out of the at least one nozzle or syringe under conditions to apply the same temperature gradient or a different temperature gradient, together the extruding and temperature gradient conditions result in freeze-casting the mixture from each of the at least one nozzle or syringe to produce an extruded material having a nozzle or syringe formed compositional gradient, and a property gradient selected from at least one of a mechanical property gradient, a physical property gradient, a structural gradient, or combinations thereof;
• and
• controlling the same or a different temperature gradient of the mixture before and during the extruding, and optionally after, through the at least one nozzle or syringe, for spatially directing an ordered crystal formation in the extruded material, wherein the extruded material is a plurality of graded layers.