Chemical actuators

An ionic motive force transducer, comprising:

• a chamber defining a volume;
• a working electrode disposed on one side of the chamber, a counter electrode disposed opposite the working electrode;
• and
• a reference electrode;
• wherein the working electrode comprises a conductive polymer optionally doped with a dopant in communication with a conductive substrate,
• wherein the conductive polymer is equilibrated by cyclic voltammetry between −600 mV and +600 mV with a scan rate of 10 mV/s for a predetermined time period until charge ingress/egress are equal such that the conductive polymer is selective to a predetermined ion and retains its selectivity in a complex electrolyte, wherein the conductive polymer undergoes reversible reduction and oxidation reaction such that proton and/or hydroxyls are removed and released from the working electrode and the counter electrode respectively into a medium.