Graphene doping by thermal poling

A method of forming a graphene device, comprising:

• providing a glass substrate with at least one blocking layer disposed thereon to form a stack, wherein the glass substrate comprises metal ions;
• providing a first electrode disposed to partially cover the blocking layer;
• transferring a graphene layer on the first electrode;
• providing a second electrode disposed to partially cover the blocking layer without overlapping with the first electrode and the graphene layer;
• increasing the temperature of the stack to at least 100° C.;
• applying an external electric potential (VP2) to the first electrode such that said metal ions of the glass substrate migrate toward the first electrode to create a depletion region in the glass substrate adjacent the second electrode at a potential (VP1);
• decreasing the temperature of the stack to room temperature while applying the external electric potential;
• and
• after reaching room temperature, setting the external electric potential to zero to create a frozen voltage region in the glass substrate adjacent the second electrode.