Catalyst ink compositions and methods for forming hydrogen pumping proton exchange membrane electrochemical cell

A method of forming a membrane electrode assembly, comprising:

• dispensing a first anode ink comprising first catalyst particles, a hydrophobic polymer bonding agent and a first ionomer bonding agent, dispersed in a first carrier;
• heat-treating the first anode ink to form a first anode catalyst layer of an anode;
• dispensing a second anode ink on the first anode catalyst layer, the second anode ink comprising second catalyst particles and a second ionomer bonding agent, dispersed in a second carrier;
• heat-treating the second anode ink to form a second anode catalyst layer of the anode;
• dispensing a cathode ink;
• and
• heat-treating the cathode ink to form a cathode layer of a cathode, wherein the anode and the cathode are disposed on opposing sides of an ionically-conductive proton exchange membrane.