Liquid sterilization apparatus

An apparatus comprising:

• a conduit including an inlet to receive a liquid and an outlet to discharge the liquid;
• a first porous electrode, a second porous electrode, and a third porous electrode disposed in the conduit between the inlet and the outlet;
• a first porous separator interposed between the first porous electrode and the second porous electrode;
• a second porous separator interposed between the second porous electrode and the third porous electrode;
• and
• a power source configured to provide power to the first porous electrode, the second porous electrode, and the third porous electrode,
• wherein while the liquid is flowing through the conduit, the power source supplies a first polarity of voltage to the first porous electrode and the third porous electrode, and supplies a second polarity of voltage to the second porous electrode, the second polarity being opposite to the first polarity,
• wherein each of the first porous electrode, the second porous electrode, and the third porous electrode includes a porous support having a plurality of pores and first nanostructures disposed on a surface of the porous support around the pores, wherein the first nanostructures include nanowires and/or nanotubes, and axes of the nanowires and/or nanotubes are substantially parallel to the surface of the porous support,
• wherein the power source provides a voltage difference of about 20 Volts to about 40 Volts between the first polarity of voltage and the second polarity of voltage, and
• wherein a bacterial, virus and protozoa inactivation efficiency of the apparatus is at least about 95% and up to 99.999%.